Deep‐sea nodules versus land ores: A comparative systems analysis of mining and processing wastes for battery‐metal supply chains

Abstract To meet UN Sustainable Development goals, a clean‐energy transition with minimal ecological impact from its raw‐material supply chain is essential. Polymetallic nodules lying unattached on the abyssal seafloor of Pacific Ocean's Clarion Clipperton Zone contain four critical metals (nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper) in large quantities, and International Seabed Authority may soon enact regulations to allow their commercial exploitation. There are complex global implications doing so. Nodule exploitation would damage habitats midwater‐column organisms; but absence nodule exploitation, terrestrial mining's environmental social impacts intensify. This paper adds growing systems‐based literature collection by contributing preliminary material flow analysis global‐average cradle‐to‐gate waste streams using either or sources as part life cycle assessment, well integrated risk assessments those streams. System endpoints battery precursors (nickel sulfate, cobalt manganese sulfate), copper cathode, 40% 75% product. Overburden, tailings, processing refining wastes mining compared industry's anticipated offshore onshore wastes, including sediment disrupted nodule‐collection machines. Robustness technology assumptions tested Monte Carlo simulation, while mass‐flow scenarios incorporate “negligible‐waste” flowsheet high‐waste flowsheets where not recovered. A billion‐EV scenario incorporates effects declining nickel ore grades. Results imply that metal production produce less lower severities, caveated uncertain sediment.